IndexLiterature ReviewCriticismThe Nature ArgumentThe Nurture ArgumentMeeting in the MiddleConclusionReferencesFrom the ancient to the modern period, learning theories have varied along with the support and criticism of each new theory. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle relied on nature or nurture to explain human behavior (Kan et al., 2013). Plato believed that knowledge was innate and that every object in the physical world had corresponding abstract “ideas”/”forms.” Aristotle rejected this notion and believed that “knowledge is the result of experience” and was obtained from sensory experience and reasoning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2015) (Cherry, 2020). In more recent theories, the debate has become more scientific, John Locke who followed Aristotle believed that the mind was a tabula rasa or blank slate to the modern scientist who believed that genetics (i.e. nature) was the key to human behavior ( Cherry, 2020). However, genes can be turned on and off depending on environmental cues or triggers. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original Essay When it comes to the question of nature or nurture, choosing the right side is not always easy because one variable influences the other. Furthermore, the focus is no longer on one versus the other, but should focus on the interaction and how they influence each other. The development and strength of individuals' intelligence depend on how nature and nurture interact. The purpose of the following article is to test and support the validity of this theory with empirical evidence from both sides of the issue. The contributions of these philosophers have allowed researchers to study different areas related to the question of nature and nurture (for example, in linguistic development and research). For example, Frederick II, a medieval emperor, conducted a diabolical experiment in an attempt to discover what language children would learn to speak if they were never spoken to. In this experiment, King Frederick took children from their mothers and placed them in the care of nurses. The nurses were not allowed to talk to the children. As a result, children did not develop any language, indicating signs of nature: nurture (Steen, 1996). In particular, the French philosopher René Descartes relied on innate ideas using the concept of God to show evidence of the influence of nature (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2015). Literature Review Intelligence is defined differently among experts in the fields of psychology and testing. Alfred Binet, the creator of the modern intelligence test, defines intelligence as “the tendency to take and maintain a definite direction; the ability to make adjustments in order to achieve a desired end and the power of self-criticism” Kaplan (2013 cited Terman, 1916, p.45). Based on this definition, Binet wanted to evaluate how individuals would perform on a scale when subjected to a series of tests over and over again. Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon were commissioned by the French Minister of Education to develop a test that would identify intellectually limited children (i.e., with mental retardation and learning difficulties). The focus was on developing a test that taps judgment, attention, and reasoning using trial-and-error and hypothesis-testing procedures (Kaplan, 2013). The scale they developed became known as the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale and was later renamed the Standard-Binet Intelligence Scale. He was guided by two principles in developing measures of intelligence:differentiation by age and general mental capacity. Age differentiation involves taking younger and older children and comparing them to the abilities of older children. For example, a six-year-old who can perform tasks appropriate for an eight-year-old is said to have a mental age of eight. General mental ability measures the total product of various separate and distinct elements of behavior (Kaplan, 2013).Therefore, intelligence tests have been used to support training on how they have developed through age and practice. Binet's work shaped the field of psychological testing, and his influence led other developers to create their own scale for mental measurement. David Wechsler expanded Binet's work and his scale provided an overall score, unlike Binet's (single overall score). . Wechsler used a point scale versus an age scale and included a performance scale. Binet's scale focused on grouping items by age level and required subjects to pass certain items to receive credit for a test (Kaplan, 2013). The Wechsler measurement scale became known as the Wechsler Intelligence Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and there have been four different versions of this scale. Today, the current version of this scale consists of four main scores: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed (Cherry, 2020). Criticism Standardized intelligence tests have had a wide range of successes since their inception. For example, the Alfred Binet measurement scale has helped school systems identify children with mental retardation and learning difficulties by placing them in the correct curriculum. However, with great success, criticism follows. Critics have said intelligence tests are inadequate and only measure test-taking skills. Additionally, intelligence tests are influenced by certain racial and economic groups. There is a correlation between socioeconomic backgrounds on all Kaplan standardized tests (2013 cited Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky, & Haynes 2003; Hart, Petrill, Deckard & Thompson, 2007). The Nature Argument Humanity shares a common DNA strand (e.g., eye color, hair texture, and some predisposing diseases) that can be factored into our genes. Those who favor heredity are known as nativists. They believe that evolution can explain human behavior and that individual differences are part of what makes a person's genetic code unique (McLeod, 2018). When it comes to intelligence, most researchers have found that brain development can be examined by measuring brain size. , and it turns out that intelligence is related to the number of neurons in the brain and the thickness of the cortex (Im, 2008). The Nurture ArgumentIn contrast, those who favor environmental factors are known as empiricists. Their assumption is that at birth the mind is a blank slate/tabula rasa (Cherry, 2020). They believe that environmental influence is the root of all behavior. Behaviorist John B. Watson advocated nurture theory and, through conditioning, believed that people could be programmed to be anything he wanted them to be: "Give me a dozen healthy, well-formed children and my own specific world to bring". and I guarantee you to take one at random and train him to become any kind of specialist I choose: doctor, lawyer, artist, chief merchant and, yes, even beggar and thief, regardless of his talents, inclinations, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors. I go beyond minefacts and I admit it, but supporters of the opposite also do it and have done so for many thousands of years” (Papierno et al., 2005, p.128). He attempted to test his famous statement by constructing a later-to-be-controversial experiment called “The Little Albert.” Watson conducted this experiment using an eleven-month-old baby named Albert. At the beginning of the experiment, Albert was exposed to various stimuli (e.g., a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, and masks) and showed no fear. As the experiment progressed, he developed a fear. When the stimulus (e.g., white rat) was repeatedly paired with a loud noise (e.g., hammer and steel bar), the infant began to cry after seeing the rat. As a result, little Albert was conditioned to any furry object (e.g., rabbit, dog, fur, cotton, and Santa Claus mask). This experiment showed how human behavior is altered in the environment through conditioning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2015). Meeting in the Middle Researchers have commonly used twin studies to address the question of nature or nurture when it comes to intelligence. Studies have shown that when one set of identical twins develops a predisposing disease (for example, schizophrenia), there is a 50% chance that the other twin will inherit the same condition (Anonymous, 2005). Fraternal twins, however, have a chance of about 16% (2005). Overall, there is no direct way to resolve the important question of whether intelligence depends more on nature/nurture, but the only solution is to look at interaction (Cherry, 2020). Clearly, they are both responsible for intelligence. Conclusion The question of nature or nurture cannot stand alone; they are both equally responsible for intelligence. Since this problem arose, most philosophers (e.g. Plato and Descartes) have favored nature, but other philosophers (e.g. Aristotle and Locke) have challenged this notion and justified environmental factors as the root of all behaviors. Furthermore, researchers have used intelligence tests to support this theory. Intelligence research can be used in an academic context to understand students' strengths and weaknesses where environment (e.g. school) and genetics (e.g. family background) interact. As a researcher, applying the concept of nature and nurture in the workplace will be essential when it comes to working in the field of industrial organizational psychology (IWO). For example, having to know each candidate's background and strengths will help narrow down the process of choosing the appropriate candidate for the job. Alfred Binet's measurement scale helped reform school testing by identifying children with mental disabilities and placing them in the right place. CV. His measurement scale was based on the concept of mental age. This scale estimates a child's mental age by comparing it to a child's average performing age. The Binet measurement scale influences other intelligence tests (for example, the David Wechsler measurement scale). Today, most of these intelligence tests have been used and criticized. Critics have said intelligence tests only measure test-taking skills and are biased against certain racial and economic groups. Please note: this is just an example. Get a custom paper from our expert writers now. Get a Custom Essay In addition to intelligence tests, twin Studies have been the most effective when it comes to the question of nature or nurture. To.2005.4.3.43